History of Public Speaking

Greece

Although evidence of public speaking training exists in ancient Egypt, the first known writing on oratory is 2,000 years old from ancient Greece. This work elaborates on principles drawn from the practices and experiences of ancient Greek orators.

Aristotle was one of the first oratory teachers to use definitive rules and models. One of his key insights was that speakers always combine, to varying degrees, three things: reasoning, which he called Logos; credentials, which he called Ethos; and emotion, which he called Pathos. Aristotle’s work became an essential part of a liberal arts education during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. The classical antiquity works by the ancient Greeks capture how they taught and developed the art of public speaking thousands of years ago.

In classical Greece and Rome, rhetoric was the main component of composition and speech delivery, both critical skills for use in public and private life. In ancient Greece, citizens spoke for themselves rather than having professionals, such as modern lawyers, speak for them. Any citizen who wished to succeed in court, politics, or social life had to learn public speaking techniques. Rhetorical tools were first taught by a group of teachers called Sophists, who taught paying students how to speak effectively using their methods.

Separately from the Sophists, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle developed their own theories of public speaking, teaching these principles to students interested in learning rhetorical skills. Plato founded The Academy and Aristotle founded The Lyceum to teach these skills.

Demosthenes was a well-known orator from Athens. After his father died when he was 7, he had three legal guardians: Aphobus, Demophon, and Theryppides. His inspiration for public speaking came from learning that his guardians had robbed him of the money his father left for his education. His first public speech was in the court proceeding he brought against his three guardians. After that, Demosthenes continued to practice public speaking. He is known for sticking pebbles into his mouth in order to help his pronunciation, talking while running so that he would not lose his breath, and practicing speaking in front of a mirror to improve his delivery.

When Philip II, the ruler of Macedon, tried to conquer the Greeks, Demosthenes made a speech called Kata Philippou A. In this speech, he spoke about why he opposed Philip II as a threat to all of Greece. This was the first of several speeches known as the Philippics. He made other speeches known as the Olynthiacs. Both series of speeches favored independence and rallied Athenians against Philip II.

Rome

In the political rise of the Roman Republic, Roman orators copied and modified the ancient Greek techniques of public speaking. Instruction in rhetoric developed into a full curriculum, including instruction in grammar (study of the poets), preliminary exercises (progymnasmata), and preparation of public speeches (declamation) in both forensic and deliberative genres.

The Latin style of rhetoric was heavily influenced by Cicero and emphasized a broad education in all areas of the humanities. Other areas of rhetorical study included the use of wit and humor, the appeal to the listener’s emotions, and the use of digressions. Oratory in the Roman empire, though less central to political life than during the Republic, remained important in law and entertainment. Famous orators were celebrities in ancient Rome, becoming wealthy and prominent in society.

The ornate Latin style was the primary form of oration through the mid-20th century. After World War II and the increased use of film and television, the Latin oration style began to fall out of favor. This cultural change likely had to do with the rise of the scientific method and the emphasis on a “plain” style of speaking and writing. Even today’s formal oratory is much less ornate than in the Classical Era.

China[edit]

Ancient China had a delayed start to the implementation of Rhetoric (persuasion), as China did not have rhetoricians training students. It was understood that Chinese rhetoric was part of Chinese philosophy, which schools taught focusing on two concepts: “Wen” (rhetoric); and “Zhi”(thoughtful content). Ancient Chinese rhetoric shows strong connections with modern public speaking, as Chinese rhetoric placed a high value on ethics.

Ancient Chinese rhetoric had three objectives: (i) using language to reflect people’s feelings; (ii) using language to be more pointed, effective, and impactful; and (iii) using rhetoric as an “aesthetic tool.” Chinese rhetoric traditionally focused more on the written than the spoken word, but both share similar characteristics of construction.

A unique and key difference between Chinese and Western rhetoric is the audience targeted for persuasion. In Chinese rhetoric, state rulers were the audience, whereas Western rhetoric targets the public. Another difference between Chinese and Western rhetoric practices is how a speaker establishes credibility or Ethos. In Chinese rhetoric, the speaker does not focus on individual credibility, like Western rhetoric. Instead, the speaker focuses on collectivism by sharing personal experiences and establishing a connection between the speaker’s concern and the audience’s interest.

Chinese rhetoric analyses public speakers on three standards: (i) tracing, which is how well the speaker is doing compared to traditional speaking practices; (ii) examination, or how the speaker considers the audience’s daily lives; and (iii) practice, which is how relevant the topic or argument is to the “state, society, and people.”

Theorists

Aristotle’s “Rhetoric”

Aristotle and one of his most famous writings, “Rhetoric” (written in 350 B.C.E), have been used as a foundation for learning how to master the art of public speaking. In his works, rhetoric is the act of publicly persuading an audience. Rhetoric is similar to dialect: he defines both as being acts of persuasion. However, dialect is the act of persuading someone in private, whereas rhetoric is about persuading people in a public setting. Aristotle defines someone who practices rhetoric or a “rhetorician” as an individual who is able to interpret and understand what persuasion is and how it is applied.

Aristotle divides rhetoric into three elements: (i) the speaker; (ii) the topic or point of the speech; and (iii) the audience. Aristotle also classifies oration into three types: (i) political, used to convince people to take or not take action; (ii) forensic, usually used in law related to accusing or defending someone; and (iii) ceremonial, which recognizes someone positively or negatively.

Aristotle breaks down the political category into five focuses or themes: “ways and means, war and peace, national defense, imports and exports, and legislation.” These focuses are broken down into detail so that the speaker can effectively influence an audience to agree and support the speaker’s ideas.

• The focus of “ways and means” deals with economic aspects in how the country is spending money.
• “Peace and War” focuses on what the country has to offer in terms of military power, how war has been conducted, how war has affected the country in the past, and how other countries have conducted war.
• “National defense” deals with considering a country’s position and strength in the event of an invasion. Fortifying structures and points with a strategic advantage should all be considered.
• “Food supply” is concerned with the ability to support a country in regards to food, importing and exporting food, and carefully making decisions to arrange agreements with other countries.
• “Legislation” is the most important to Aristotle. The legislation of a country is the most crucial aspect because everything is affected by the policies and laws set by the people in power.

In Aristotle’s “Rhetoric” writing, he mentions three strategies someone can use to try to persuade an audience: Establishing the character of a speaker (Ethos), influencing the emotional element of the audience (Pathos), and focusing on the argument specifically (Logos).  Aristotle believes establishing the character of a speaker is effective in persuasion because the audience will believe what the speaker is saying to be true if the speaker is credible and trustworthy. With the audience’s emotional state, Aristotle believes that individuals do not make the same decisions when in different moods. Because of this, one needs to try to influence the audience by being in control of one’s emotions, making persuasion effective. The argument itself can affect the attempt to persuade by making the argument of the case so clear and valid that the audience will understand and believe that the speaker’s point is real.

In the last part of “Rhetoric”, Aristotle mentions that the most critical piece of persuasion is to know in detail what makes up government and to attack what makes it unique: “customs, institutions, and interest”. Aristotle also states that everyone is persuaded by considering people’s interests and how the society in which they live influences their interests.

Historical speeches

The notion of a canon of the most important historical speeches is giving way to a broader understanding. Many previously forgotten historical speeches are being recovered and studied. Despite shifts in style, the best-known examples of public speaking are still studied years after their delivery. Among these examples are:

• Pericles’ Funeral Oration in 427 BC addressing those who died during the Peloponnesian War
• Abraham Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address in 1863
• Sojourner Truth’s identification of racial issues in “Ain’t I a Woman?“
• Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech at the Washington Monument in 1963.